Kratom

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Kratom
Mitragyna
speciosa



Scientific
classification

Kingdom:
Plantae

Division:
Magnoliophyta

Order:
Gentianales

Family:
Rubiaceae

Genus:
Mitragyna

Species:
M.
speciosa

Binomial
name

Mitragyna speciosa
Korth.
Kratom (Thai: กระท่อม), Mitragyna speciosa, is
a medicinal leaf harvested from a large tree in the Rubiaceae family native to Southeast Asia in the Indochina and Malesia floristic regions.[clarification needed] The
plant has been traditionally used for its medicinal properties.[clarification needed] It was
first formally documented by the Dutch colonial botanist Pieter Korthals. The genus was given its
Mitragyna name by Korthals because the stigmas in the first species he
examined resembled the shape of a bishop's mitre. It is botanically related to
the Corynanthe, Cinchona and Uncaria genera and shares some similar biochemistry.







Contents [hide]

• 1 Description
  
  
  
  • 1.1 Alkaloids


• 2 Effects
  
  
  
  • 2.1 Opiate
    dependence


• 3 Legal status
  
  
  
  • 3.1 Thailand
  
  
  • 3.2 United States
  
  
  • 3.3 Canada


• 4 See also


• 5 References
  
  
  
  • 5.1 Citations


• 6 Further
  reading

[edit] Description
Mitragyna speciosa, kratom trees, usually grow to a height of 12–30 ft
(3.7–9.1 m) tall and 15 ft (4.6 m) wide, although under the right conditions,
certain species can reach up to 40 ft (12 m)–100 ft (30 m) in height. The stem
is erect and branching. The leaves of the kratom tree are a dark green colour
and can grow to over 7 inches (180 mm) long and 4 inches (100 mm) wide.,
ovate-acuminate in shape, and opposite in growth pattern.


The flowers are yellow and grow in clusters. This genus is characterized by a
globular flowering head, bearing up to 120 florets each. During the flower bud
stage, the developing florets are surrounded and completely covered by numerous
overlapping bracteoles.[citation needed]


Kratom leaves are constantly being shed and being replaced, but there is some
quasi-seasonal leaf shedding due to environmental conditions. During the dry
season of the year leaf fall is more abundant, and new growth is more plentiful
during the rainy season.


When grown outside their natural tropical habitat, leaf fall occurs with
colder temperatures, around 4 degrees Celsius.[citation needed] The kratom
tree grows best in wet, humid, fertile soil, with medium to full sun exposure,
and an area protected from strong winds.


[edit] Alkaloids
Kratom contains many alkaloids including mitragynine (once thought to be the primary active
constituent), mitraphylline, and 7-hydroxymitragynine (which is currently the most
likely candidate for the primary active chemical in the plant).[1] Although
7-hydroxymitragynine and mitragynine are structurally related to yohimbine and other tryptamines, their pharmacology is quite different,
acting primarily as mu-opioid receptor agonists. Other active chemicals in
kratom include raubasine (best known from Rauwolfia serpentina) and some yohimbe
alkaloids such as corynantheidine.[2]


Also, as stated by and according to references on erowid.org, there are
several countries in which the cultivation and usage of this herb (flora) are
forbidden, some with very harsh sentencing recommendations. The native countries
(in the Eastern part of the world i.e. Thailand, etc.) have enacted laws
forbidding the plants' usage for any "medical" reason. There is limited research
on this plant because of the restrictions, and as of the past 10 (ten) years,
this plants' popularity as a "recreational" drug have become widely noticed.
References to this fact are countless; it can be bought as both whole leaf, or
"isolate" which has the active alkaloids in it. The claims that this drug can be
used as a "substitution" for opiate dependence are rare and the studies that do
exist are sparse; therefore, it is up to the reader to take note to the laws of
the country they reside in as to weather or not this plant bears ANY medical
use. There are varied reports that cannot be cited properly due to poor testing
conditions regarding the plant's supposed medical benefits. However, individual
experiences with this herb (flora) have shown results ranging from that of a
placebo effect to noticeable effects dealing with opiate withdraw. More studies
are needed before accurate citation is possible.


[edit] Effects



Kratom capsules



Dried kratom leaf
Kratom's primary pharmacology is mediated by the alkaloids 7-hydroxymitragynine and mitragynine. While these molecules share structural
similarities to the psychedelics, there is no psychedelic activity or
similarities in effects to such substances. Instead these alkaloids primarily
interact with the opioid receptors. Accordingly, kratom is known to prevent or
delay withdrawal symptoms in an opiate dependent individual, and it is often
used for this purpose. It can also be used for other medicinal purposes and is
sometimes used recreationally.


Kratom has been traditionally used in regions such as Malaysia, Thailand, and
Indonesia, but was discovered by Western civilization during the 19th century.
Besides kratom (or krathom), in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands it also
goes by the names ithang, biak biak, ketum, kakuam, and in southern regions,
thom. In these areas kratom has a history of use by laborers and in folk
medicine for opium dependence and diarrhea.


Of the two main active constituents, mitragynine has been studied more
thoroughly than 7-hydroxymitragynine. At lower doses, Mitragynine exhibits a
yohimbine-like binding to alpha-adrenergic receptors, as well as some binding to
the delta opioid receptors. As doses increase, binding to delta receptors
increases, and in yet higher doses, crossover to mu receptors occurs.


7-hydroxymitragynine was only recently understood to be the main active
ingredient. Limited animal research suggests it is a potent opiate agonist, but
with a ceiling effect that limits the potential for respiratory depression and
euphoria. No fatal overdose of kratom is known to have occurred.


While one study of Thai users reported that kratom has sedative effects in
low doses, changing over to stimulation in higher doses, this seems to be
incorrect. Most other sources say that it is a stimulant in lower doses,
becoming sedative in higher doses, which is consistent with mitragynine's
receptor binding profile. However, recent publications indicate that different
alkaloids may be at work to achieve stimulation versus sedation: whereas higher
concentrations of mitragynine are attributed to act as a stimulant,
7-hydroxymitragynine is the most significant alkaloid for sedation with more
potent analgesic activity than that of morphine.[1] Effects
come on within five to ten minutes after use, and last for several hours. The
feeling has been described as happy, strong, and active, with a strong desire to
do work. The mind is described as calm.


Side effects, although rare, may include dry mouth, increased or decreased
urination, loss of appetite, and nausea or vomiting. Heavy use can result in a
prolonged sleep. Possible side effects from long term use include anorexia and
weight loss, insomnia, and dependence. Comprehensive scientific and clinical
studies have yet to be conducted to establish the potential health risks
associated with consistent long term consumption of kratom.





Young kratom tree
Kratom has recently become more known and used in Europe and North America where it has been prized for its
applications to many conditions and ailments, primarily pain, depression,
anxiety, and opiate withdrawal.





Kratom leaf
[edit] Opiate
dependence





This section does not cite any references
or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed.
(April 2011)
Inspired by traditional use, H. Ridley reported In 1897 that the leaves of
Mitragyna speciosa were a cure for opium dependence. In more recent times,
mitragynine has been used in New Zealand for methadone dependence detox. Kratom
was smoked whenever the patient experienced withdrawal symptoms, over a 6 week
treatment period. Patients reported a visualization effect taking place at night
in the form of vivid hypnagogic dreams. While working on plans for ibogaine
experiments in the USA, Cures Not Wars activist Dana Beal suggested that
mitragynine could be used as an active placebo for comparison in the study.
Acting Deputy Director of the NIDA Charles Grudzinskas rejected the proposal,
however, saying that even less was known about mitragynine than ibogaine.


Although chemically similar, ibogaine and mitragynine work by different
pathways, and have different applications in treatment of drug dependence. While
ibogaine is intended as a one time treatment to cure opiate dependence,
mitragynine is used to gradually wean the user off opiates. The fact that
mitragynine's mu crossover is increased by the presence of opiate drugs may be
exploitable in the treatment of drug dependence, because it directs binding to
where it is needed, automatically regulating the attachment ratio and modulating
it towards the delta receptors over a short time. Within a few days, a person
dependent on opiates would stop use of opiates, and the cravings and withdrawal
will be moderated by the binding of mitragynine to the delta receptors.
Mitragynine could also perhaps be used as a substitution or maintenance drug to
manage dependence. In Southern Thailand, many heroin users have been using
kratom to break their dependence and to manage painful withdrawal symptoms.


In 1999, Pennapa Sapcharoen, director of the National Institute of Thai
Traditional Medicine in Bangkok said that kratom could be prescribed both for
opiate dependence and to patients suffering from depression, but stressed that
further research is needed. Chulalongkorn University chemists have isolated
mitragynine which researchers can obtain for study.


In 1897 Ridley reported the leaves and bark of Mitragyna speciosa as a cure
for the opium habit and this was quoted by Hooper (1907) In 1907 Holmes had
referred to the leaves and possibly, the leaves of M. parvifolia as well, as an
opium substitute. Certainly the leaves of M. speciosa have been chewed for many
years under the local name 'kratom' by the native population of Thailand as a
stimulant though the practice is now forbidden. As a consequence the leaves of
M. javanica are frequently used as a substitute but are not considered to be as
effective. The natives will also distinguish between different kratoms, for
example, those with red and those with green midribs (Tantivatana, 1965).


Mitragynine was the only constituent isolated from Mitragyna speciosa it was
assumed to be the physiologically active constituent having morphine-like
properties, Grewel (1932) reported to be a protozoal poison but in 1933
Raymond-Hamet and Millat undertook a more critical examination and reported it
to have markedly depressant properties. This was substantiated in 1934 by
Masson. More recently Macko, Weisbach and Douglas (1972) reported that
mitragynine possesses pain threshold elevating and antitussive properties but no
addictive properties.[citation needed]


Recent drug use trends in Thailand indicate that a emerging pattern and
profile is emerging in relation to kratom use. Around 2005, young people aged
between 13 to 30 years old started boiling kratom leaves (15 to 100 leaves at a
time) to produce a tea as a base for a cocktail coined 4x100 (สี่คูณร้อย). The
basic 4x100 cocktail includes the kratom tea, cough syrup, Coca-Cola, and ice.
The cocktail is generally prepared twice or more per day, depending on
availability of leaves and is consumed for recreational purposes.[citation needed]


Although kratom has been shown to help people suffering from opiate addiction
and withdrawal symptoms, kratom itself is believed to be similarly addictive if
abused. Daily kratom users can develop a dependency similar to that of opiate
addiction; however, withdrawals from kratom are said to be substantially less
severe and shorter in duration. If used responsibly and on a non-daily basis the
chances of developing a kratom dependency are shown to be remote.


[edit] Legal
status
Kratom is a controlled substance in Thailand, Bhutan, Australia, Finland,
Denmark, Poland, Lithuania and Sweden as of September, 1, 2011. [3] Malaysia
and Myanmar (Burma). In Malaysia, kratom is scheduled under the Poisons Act.


[edit] Thailand
The Thai government passed the Kratom Act 2486 which went into effect on
August 3, 1943. This law makes planting the tree illegal and requires existing
trees to be cut down. This law was not found effective, since the tree is
indigenous to the country. Today, kratom is scheduled in category 5 of the
Narcotics Acts (1979), in the same category as cannabis and magic mushrooms (the
least punitive category). A related species, Mitragyna javanica, is often used
as a substitute to get around the law, but it is not considered as effective.
The dominant alkaloid in this species is mitrajavine, which has not yet been
pharmacologically tested.[citation needed]


[edit] United
States
Kratom is currently an unscheduled substance.[4]


[edit] Canada
Although kratom has not been approved by Health Canada for human consumption,
it currently does not fall under the purview of the Controlled Drugs and
Substances Act [5] thus,
remaining largely unregulated.

Methoxetamine (MXE) or 3-MeO-2-Oxo-PCE is a chemical of the arylcyclohexylamine class. It is an analogue of ketamine that also contains structural features of eticyclidine and 3-MeO-PCP. Like ketamine, it is thought to behave as a NMDA receptor antagonist and dopamine reuptake inhibitor, though it has not been formally profiled pharmacologically. Methoxetamine differs from many other dissociative anesthetics of the arylcyclohexylamine class in that it was designed for grey-market distribution.[1] Methoxetamine is a product of rational drug design: its N-ethyl group was chosen to increase potency, lessening the risk of interstitial cystitis that can result from the accumulation of ketamine-like metabolites in the urinary bladder.[1]

[edit] See also

• Dissociatives
• Ketamine
• Phencyclidine
• Methoxydine

[edit] References

1. ^ a b [1], Morris, H. (11 February 2011). "Interview with a ketamine chemist: or to be more precise, an arylcyclohexylamine chemist". Vice Magazine. Retrieved 2011-02-11.

[edit] External links Erowid.org – Methoxetamine Information

Welcome to the Natural High Drug Information site on Drugs and there Effects
Our aim is to provide a wealth of knowledge on Chemical Research Drugs,Herbal Highs,so called Plant Food and all other forms or Drug Abuse including Perscribtion Drugs. This sites aim is to have open discussions on the health issues the addiction and the good effects of drugs we also have a forum for everyone to contribute.
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5-IAI From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search 5-IAI Systematic (IUPAC) name 5-iodo-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine Identifiers CAS number 132367-76-1 ATC code None PubChem CID 131506 ChemSpider 116224 Y Chemical data Formula C9H10IN  Mol. mass 259.087 g/mol SMILES eMolecules & PubChem InChI[show]

• InChI=1S/C9H10IN/c10-8-2-1-6-4-9(11)5-7(6)3-8/h1-3,9H,4-5,11H2 Y
  Key: BIHPYCDDPGNWQO-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y

Therapeutic considerations Pregnancy cat.  ? Legal status Uncontrolled Routes Oral, Insufflated, Rectal  Y(what is this?)  (verify)
5-Iodo-2-aminoindane (5-IAI) is a drug which acts as a releasing agent of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.[1] It was developed in the 1990s by a team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University.[2] 5-IAI fully substitutes for MDMA in rodents and is a putative entactogen in humans.[2] Unlike related aminoindane derivatives like MDAI and MMAI, 5-IAI causes some serotonergic neurotoxicity in rats, but is substantially less toxic than the its corresponding amphetamine homologue pIA, with the damage observed barely reaching statistical significance.[1]

[edit] See also

• 2-Aminoindane (2-AI)
• para-Iodoamphetamine (pIA)
• 6-Chloro-2-aminotetralin (6-CAT)

[edit] References

1. ^ a b Johnson MP, Conarty PF, Nichols DE (July 1991). "[3H]monoamine releasing and uptake inhibition properties of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and p-chloroamphetamine analogues". European Journal of Pharmacology 200 (1): 9–16. PMID 1685125. 
2. ^ a b Nichols DE, Johnson MP, Oberlender R (January 1991). "5-Iodo-2-aminoindan, a nonneurotoxic analogue of p-iodoamphetamine". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 38 (1): 135–9. PMID 1826785. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0091-3057(91)90601-W.

NRG2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search edit Neuregulin 2 Identifiers Symbols NRG2; Don-1; HRG2; NTAK External IDs OMIM: 603818 HomoloGene: 75024 GeneCards: NRG2 Gene [show]Gene Ontology Molecular function • growth factor activity
Cellular component • membrane
• integral to membrane
Biological process • anti-apoptosis
• signal transduction
• cell-cell signaling
• embryonic development
Sources: Amigo / QuickGO RNA expression pattern More reference expression data Orthologs Species Human Mouse Entrez 9542 n/a Ensembl ENSG00000158458 n/a UniProt O14511 n/a RefSeq (mRNA) XM_001129975 n/a RefSeq (protein) XP_001129975 n/a Location (UCSC) Chr 5:
139.21 - 139.4 Mb n/a PubMed search [1] n/a Neuregulin 2, also known as NRG2, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the NRG2 gene.[1][2][3]

Function Neuregulin 2 (NRG2) is a novel member of the neuregulin family of growth and differentiation factors. Through interaction with the ErbB family of receptors, NRG2 induces the growth and differentiation of epithelial, neuronal, glial, and other types of cells. The gene consists of 12 exons and the genomic structure is similar to that of neuregulin 1 (NRG1), another member of the neuregulin family of ligands. NRG1 and NRG2 mediate distinct biological processes by acting at different sites in tissues and eliciting different biological responses in cells. The gene is located close to the region for demyelinating Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease locus, but is not responsible for this disease. Alternative transcripts encoding distinct isoforms have been described.[1]

References

1. ^ a b "Entrez Gene: NRG2 neuregulin 2". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=9542. 
2. ^ Chang H, Riese DJ, Gilbert W, Stern DF, McMahan UJ (May 1997). "Ligands for ErbB-family receptors encoded by a neuregulin-like gene". Nature 387 (6632): 509–12. doi:10.1038/387509a0. PMID 9168114. 
3. ^ Carraway KL, Weber JL, Unger MJ, Ledesma J, Yu N, Gassmann M, Lai C (May 1997). "Neuregulin-2, a new ligand of ErbB3/ErbB4-receptor tyrosine kinases". Nature 387 (6632): 512–6. doi:10.1038/387512a0. PMID 9168115. 

Further reading

• Chang H, Riese DJ, Gilbert W, et al. (1997). "Ligands for ErbB-family receptors encoded by a neuregulin-like gene.". Nature 387 (6632): 509–12. doi:10.1038/387509a0. PMID 9168114. 
• Carraway KL, Weber JL, Unger MJ, et al. (1997). "Neuregulin-2, a new ligand of ErbB3/ErbB4-receptor tyrosine kinases.". Nature 387 (6632): 512–6. doi:10.1038/387512a0. PMID 9168115. 
• Busfield SJ, Michnick DA, Chickering TW, et al. (1997). "Characterization of a neuregulin-related gene, Don-1, that is highly expressed in restricted regions of the cerebellum and hippocampus.". Mol. Cell. Biol. 17 (7): 4007–14. PMC 232253. PMID 9199335. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=232253. 
• Higashiyama S, Horikawa M, Yamada K, et al. (1998). "A novel brain-derived member of the epidermal growth factor family that interacts with ErbB3 and ErbB4.". J. Biochem. 122 (3): 675–80. PMID 9348101. 
• Reddy PH, Stockburger E, Gillevet P, Tagle DA (1998). "Mapping and characterization of novel (CAG)n repeat cDNAs from adult human brain derived by the oligo capture method.". Genomics 46 (2): 174–82. doi:10.1006/geno.1997.5044. PMID 9417904. 
• Ring HZ, Chang H, Guilbot A, et al. (1999). "The human neuregulin-2 (NRG2) gene: cloning, mapping and evaluation as a candidate for the autosomal recessive form of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease linked to 5q.". Hum. Genet. 104 (4): 326–32. doi:10.1007/s004390050961. PMID 10369162. 
• Yamada K, Ichino N, Nishii K, et al. (2000). "Characterization of the human NTAK gene structure and distribution of the isoforms for rat NTAK mRNA.". Gene 255 (1): 15–24. doi:10.1016/S0378-1119(00)00309-7. PMID 10974560. 
• Strausberg RL, Feingold EA, Grouse LH, et al. (2003). "Generation and initial analysis of more than 15,000 full-length human and mouse cDNA sequences.". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 (26): 16899–903. doi:10.1073/pnas.242603899. PMC 139241. PMID 12477932. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=139241. 
• Nakano N, Higashiyama S, Ohmoto H, et al. (2004). "The N-terminal region of NTAK/neuregulin-2 isoforms has an inhibitory activity on angiogenesis.". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (12): 11465–70. doi:10.1074/jbc.M311045200. PMID 14722120. 
• Ponomareva ON, Ma H, Dakour R, et al. (2005). "Stimulation of acetylcholine receptor transcription by neuregulin-2 requires an N-box response element and is regulated by alternative splicing.". Neuroscience 134 (2): 495–503. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.04.028. PMID 15961242. 
• Fan BJ, Ko WC, Wang DY, et al. (2007). "Fine mapping of new glaucoma locus GLC1M and exclusion of neuregulin 2 as the causative gene.". Mol. Vis. 13: 779–84. PMC 2768763. PMID 17563728. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2768763.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Benzofuran IUPAC name[hide] 1-Benzofuran Other names[hide] Coumarone, benzo[b]furan Identifiers CAS number 271-89-6 Y PubChem 9223 ChemSpider 8868 Y KEGG C14512 Y ChEMBL CHEMBL363614 Y SMILES[show]

• o2c1ccccc1cc2

InChI[show]

• InChI=1S/C8H6O/c1-2-4-8-7(3-1)5-6-9-8/h1-6H Y
  Key: IANQTJSKSUMEQM-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y InChI=1/C8H6O/c1-2-4-8-7(3-1)5-6-9-8/h1-6H
  Key: IANQTJSKSUMEQM-UHFFFAOYAU

Properties Molecular formula C8H6O Molar mass 118.13 g mol−1 Melting point -18 °C, 255 K, -0 °F

Boiling point 173 °C, 446 K, 343 °F

 Y(what is this?)  (verify)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa) Infobox references Benzofuran is the heterocyclic compound consisting of fused benzene and furan rings. This colourless solid is a component of coal tar. Benzofuran is the "parent" of many related compounds with more complex structures. For example, psoralen is a benzofuran derivative that occurs in several plants.

Contents[hide]

• 1 Production
  • 1.1 Laboratory methods
• 2 Related compounds
• 3 Safety
• 4 References

[edit] Production Benzofuran is extracted from coal tar. It is also obtained by dehydrogenation of 2-ethylphenol.[1]

[edit] Laboratory methods Benzofuran can be prepared by O-alkylation of salicylaldehyde with chloroacetic acid followed by dehydration of the resulting ether.[2] In another method called the "Perkin rearrangement"[3][4] a coumarin is reacted with a hydroxide:

[edit] Related compounds

• Furan, an analog without the fused benzene ring.
• Indole, an analog with a nitrogen instead of the oxygen atom.
• Isobenzofuran, the isomer with oxygen in the adjacent position.
• Aurone

[edit] Safety The LD50 in mice is 500 mg/kg.[1]

[edit] References

1. ^ a b Gerd Collin, Hartmut Höke "Benzofurans" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi: 10.1002/14356007.l03_l01
2. ^ Albert W. Burgstahler and Leonard R. Worden “Coumarone” Organic Syntheses, Collected Volume 5, p.251 (1973). http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/pdfs/CV5P0251.pdf
3. ^ W. H. Perkin, J. Chem. Soc., 1870, 23, 368; 1871, 24, 37.
4. ^ Reactions of carbonyl compounds in basic solutions. Part 32.1 The Perkin rearrangement Keith Bowden and Sinan Battah J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1998, 1603 - 1606, doi:10.1039/a801538d